The tongue participates in a range of complex oromotor behaviors, including mastication, swallowing, respiration, and speech. Previous electromyographic studies of the human tongue have focused on respiratory-related tongue muscle activities and their role in maintaining upper airway patency. Remarkably, the activities of human hypoglossal motor units have not been studied during the execution of voluntary maneuvers. We recorded single motor unit activity using tungsten microelectrodes in the genioglossus muscle of 10 healthy human subjects performing both slow tongue protrusions and a static holding maneuver. Displacement of the tongue was detected by an isotonic transducer coupled to the lingual surface through a customized lever arm. For protrusion trials, the firing rate at recruitment was 13.1 +/- 3 Hz and increased steeply to an average of 24 +/- 6 Hz, often with very modest increases in tongue protrusion. For the static holding task, the average firing rate was 16.1 +/- 4 Hz, which is surprisingly high relative to limb motor units. The average coefficient of variation of interspike intervals was approximately 20% (range, 10-28%). These are the first recordings of their type obtained in human subjects and provide an initial glimpse into the voluntary control of hypoglossal motoneurons during tongue movements presumably instigated by activity in the motor cortex.
Here we review the influence of bronchopulmonary receptors (slowly and rapidly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors, and pulmonary/bronchial C-fiber receptors) on respiratory-related motor output to upper airway muscles acting on the larynx, tongue, and hyoid arch. Review of the literature shows that all muscles in all three regions are profoundly inhibited by lung inflation, which excites slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors. This widespread coactivation includes the recruitment of muscles that have opposing mechanical actions, suggesting that the stiffness of upper airway muscles is highly regulated. A profound lack of information on the modulation of upper airway muscles by rapidly adapting receptors and bronchopulmonary C-fiber receptors prohibits formulation of a conclusive opinion as to their actions and underscores an urgent need for new studies in this area. The preponderance of the data support the view that discharge arising in slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors plays an important role in the initiation of the widespread and highly coordinated recruitment of laryngeal, tongue, and hyoid muscles during airway obstruction.
The genioglossus (GG) is considered the principle protrudor muscle of the human tongue. Unlike most skeletal muscles, GG electromyographic (EMG) activities are robustly preserved in sleep and thus may fulfill a critical role in preserving airway patency. Previous studies in human subjects also confirm that the GG EMG increases in response to chemoreceptor and mechanoreceptor stimulation. This increase occurs secondary to the recruitment of previously inactive motor units (MUs) and/or an increase in firing rate of already active MUs. Which strategy the nervous system uses when the synaptic drive onto GG motoneurons increases is not known. Here we report on GG whole muscle and tonic MU activities under conditions that mimic sleep, i.e., mild-moderate elevations in CO(2) (3% inspired CO(2) or the addition of a 1.0 l dead space) and elevated airway resistance. Based on previous work in rat, we hypothesized that mild hypercapnia would increase the firing rates of tonic MUs and that these effects would be further potentiated by a modest increase in airway resistance. Fine wire and tungsten microelectrodes were inserted into the GG to record whole muscle and single MU activities in 21 subjects (13 women, 8 men; 20-55 yr). Either 3% inspired CO(2) or added dead space resulted in a 200-300% increase in the amplitude of both tonic and phasic components of the whole muscle GG EMG and a doubling of minute ventilation. Despite these changes, recordings obtained from a total of 84 tonically discharging GG single MUs provide no evidence of a change in firing rate under any of the conditions. On this basis we conclude that in healthy adults, the increase in the tonic component of the whole muscle GG EMG secondary to mild hypercapnia is due almost exclusively to the recruitment of previously inactive MUs.
The muscular-hydrostat model of tongue function proposes a constant interaction of extrinsic (external bony attachment, insertion into base of tongue) and intrinsic (origin and insertion within the tongue) tongue muscles in all tongue movements (Kier WM and Smith KK. Zool J Linn Soc 83: 207-324, 1985). Yet, research that examines the respiratory-related effects of tongue function in mammals continues to focus almost exclusively on the respiratory control and function of the extrinsic tongue protrusor muscle, the genioglossus muscle. The respiratory control and function of the intrinsic tongue muscles are unknown. Our purpose was to determine whether intrinsic tongue muscles have a respiration-related activity pattern and whether intrinsic tongue muscles are coactivated with extrinsic tongue muscles in response to respiratory-related sensory stimuli. Esophageal pressure and electromyographic (EMG) activity of an extrinsic tongue muscle (hyoglossus), an intrinsic tongue muscle (superior longitudinal), and an external intercostal muscle were studied in anesthetized, tracheotomized, spontaneously breathing rats. Mean inspiratory EMG activity was compared at five levels of inspired CO2. Intrinsic tongue muscles were often quiescent during eupnea but active during hypercapnia, whereas extrinsic tongue muscles were active in both eupnea and hypercapnia. During hypercapnia, the activities of the airway muscles were largely coincident, although the onset of extrinsic muscle activity generally preceded the onset of intrinsic muscle activation. Our findings provide evidence, in an in vivo rodent preparation, of respiratory modulation of motoneurons supplying intrinsic tongue muscles. Distinctions noted between intrinsic and extrinsic activities could be due to differences in motoneuron properties or the central, respiration-related control of each motoneuron population.
The genioglossus (GG) muscle is considered the principal protruder muscle of the tongue that dilates and stiffens the pharyngeal airway. We recorded whole muscle and single motor unit (MU) activities in healthy adults performing progressive intensity exercise on a cycle ergometer. Tungsten microelectrodes were inserted percutaneously into the GG of 11 subjects (20-40 years) to record electromyographic (EMG) activities and pulmonary ventilation (VI) at rest and at workload increments up to 300 W. Increases in respiratory drive were associated with increases in VI, mean inspiratory flow (Vt/Ti) and tonic and phasic components of the GG EMG activity. In contrast, individual MUs typically showed expiration-related decreases in firing as exercise intensity increased. We suggest the decrease in MU activity may occur secondary to afferent feedback from lungs/chest wall and that compensation for more negative inspiratory airway pressures generated during heavy exercise occurs primarily via recruitment of previously silent MUs.
